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Whyisthereanastonishingatmosphericpressureinsidethesun,butnoblackhole?
Firstly,thesunisdividedintoseverallevels.Fromthecenterofthesunoutward,tothesolarnucleus,troposphere,andsolaratmosphere,thesunincludesthreeparts:photospherechromosphereandcorona.15%oftheradiusofthesunismadeupofthesolarnucleus.Whenthethermalnucleusreacts,themainwayofreleasinggreatenergyishydrogenfusion.Thelocaldensityofthesolarnucleusis160grams./Thecentralpressureis330billionatmosphericpressure.About15,000,000K,whichconcentrateshalfofthemassofthesunandproducesabout99%oftheenergyemittedbythesun.Becauseofthehightemperature,itssubstancesareinthegaseousstate,andtheenergyreleasedbythesolarnucleusisproducedbythefusionofhydrogenatomsintohelium.Everysecond,600milliontonsofhydrogen,whichistransformedinto596milliontonsofheliumthroughthermonuclearfusionreaction,releasestheenergyequivalentto4milliontonsofhydrogen,whichisthesourceofsolarlight.EstimatesofhydrogencontentinthesunsuggestthatthesuncanprovideatleastfivebillionyearsoflightandheattotheEarth.
Sincethereissomuchpressureinthecenterofthesun,whydidn'tablackholeform?Thisisbecauseparticlesinnaturecanwithstandthecontractionpressurefromthesunbymeansoftheirowngravitationalstructure,sothepressureofthesunisnotenoughtocrushthegravitationalsupportstructureofparticles,themorecompactthepressureis.Butitisbynomeansinfinitelycompressed.Whenacertaincriticalstateisreached,thegravitationalsupportstructurewillchangelocallyandformablackholeinnature.ThisaveragevaluationisgivenbyOppenheimer.ItiscalledOppenheimerlimitTOVlimit.Thecorrespondingblackholeiscalledanaturalblackhole.
Oppenheimer,J.R.(J.RobertOppenheimer)(19041967),Americantheoreticalphysicistandscientificorganizer,chieftechnicaldirectoroftheManhattanProjectforthedevelopmentofthefirstatomicbombsintheUnitedStates.
In1936,Oppenheimeretal.firstdiscussedtheequilibriumandstabilityofdensestarscomposedofdegenerateneutronmatter,i.e.neutronstars.Thepropertiesofsuchstarsaremainlydeterminedbythebalancebetweenselfgravitationanddegenerateneutronpressure.UsingthestructureequationofnonrotatingsphericallysymmetricstarsingeneralrelativityandtheidealFermigasequationastheequationofstateofneutronmatter,OppenheimeretalprovedthatthereexistsacriticalmassM_0.75M,Mrepresentingthemassofthesun.WhenthemassofastarislessthanM,thereexistsastableequilibriumsolution;onthecontrary,thereisnostableequilibriumsolution.TheuppermasslimitMofneutronstarsistheOppenheimerlimit.Iftheneutronequationofstateismoreclosetotheactualone.ThevalueofOppenheimerlimitwillbedifferentfromtheoriginalvalue.Atpresent,theequationofstateforneutronstarswithdensitiesgreaterthan10g/cmisuncertain,andtheuppermasslimitforneutronstarsisuncertain.Generally,itcanbetakenas2M.
TheOppenheimerLimit(TOVLimit,alsoknownasOppenheimerVolkovLimit)istheuppermasslimitforneutronstars,similartotheChandrasekaLimitforwhitedwarfstars.Asmentionedintheprevioussection,OppenheimerandVolkov'suppermasslimitforneutronstarsisabout0.7timesthemassofthesun,whichshouldbewrongtoday.Today'sresultsrangefrom1.5to3timesthemassofthesun.Forneutronstarswhosemassislessthanthislimit,theinternalpressureofsupportingstarscomesfromthestronginteractionbetweenneutronsandneutronsandthequantumdegeneratepressureofneutronsthemselves;forneutronstarswhosemassisgreaterthanthislimit,theycollapseintoablackholeundertheactionoftheirowngravitation,andmaytheoreticallybecomeotherformsofstarsunderthesupportofinternalpressureinotherways.(Forexample,itcollapsesintoaquarkstarunderthesupportofquarkdegeneratepressure).However,becausethesetheoreticalquarkdegeneratematerialsarelessknownthanneutrondegeneratematerials,astrophysicistsgenerallybelievethatneutronstarswillcollapseintoblackholeswhentheyexceedthislimitunlessthereareexamplesofactualobservations.
AhotnuclearenergyexhaustedstarcannotbeastableneutronstarifitsmassisgreaterthantheOppenheimerlimit.Oneofitspossibledestinationsistoformblackholesthroughinfinitecollapse,andtheotheristoformothertypesofcompactstarsbetweenneutronstarsandblackholes.
Itisimpossibleforhumanbeingstousenaturalblackholestochangetheuniverseonthecurrentlevelofscienceandtechnology.It'slikefightingalioninAfricawithbarehandsandbarearms.Weapons(nonnaturalproducts)arethewaytowin.Similarly,themanufactureandproductionofblackholescanonlybetheproductofnonnature,whichisthetruthofthesocalled"fourortwosetsofkilograms".
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